Influence of Government Paradigms on Public Accountability Public Administration and Network Governance

Introduction Accountability is a dominant concept in the democratic political discourses. It reflects trustworthiness and transparency in public administration. However, depending on the dimension from which one looks at it, accountability may mean different things (Behn, 2001, p. 3: Pollitt, 2003, p. 89: Considine, 2002, p. 22).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Influence of Government Paradigms on Public Accountability: Public Administration and Network Governance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the most fundamental sense, accountability bridges the dynamic relationships between citizens and systems of public administration entrusted by the citizens to act in a manner that will benefit all citizens in overall. In democratic regimes, there exists a universal requirement for holding political leadership and administration accountable for their actions. Political accountability is problematic since politicians p resume that their obligations to the citizens would be executed in a manner that profiles master-servant relationships. In such a relationship, matters are not answerable to the servants nor should the servants question their masters (Scott, 2000, p.41: Schmitter, 2004, p.53). This phenomenon is common in the authoritarian systems of public administration. It infers that accountability is a concept that is only applicable to democratic systems where the administrators must respect the will of the people they serve. People possess a myriad of mechanisms of interacting with their administration. They may be clients of a myriad of agencies. In such a situation, they seek services and benefits from various agencies serving administrative roles.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More People may also interact with the administration through legal systems, which serve the principle func tion of providing restrictions that bind all citizens coupled with those who represent them in the government. In such relationships, citizens constantly seek their interests to be safe guarded through accountability structures that ensure equal and paramount representation in the government by the people whom citizens appoint to make decisions on their behalf (Bovaird Loffler, 2009). The focus of public administration on adoption of mechanisms for ensuring that government is accountable to the client underlines the change of public administration systems from being bureaucratic. The focus of this paper is to conduct an analysis on the changes coupled with differences in approaches of public accountability. The paper is divided into two main sections. The first section of description considers theoretical perspectives of public accountability. In the second section, which is the analysis part, a consideration of traditional public administration followed by new public management an d then network governance is made. These approaches are then analyzed in the context of approaches of public accountability. Description: Theoretical perspectives For systems of governance to be acceptable by people, they need to be accountable. In the embracement of democracy, accountability is incredibly significant (Horner, Lekhi Blaug, 2006, p. 42).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Influence of Government Paradigms on Public Accountability: Public Administration and Network Governance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Accountable systems of governance are paramount since interaction of citizens and the government is dependent on the extent to which citizens can hold those in entrusted with power accountable (Hughes, 2003, p.240). With regard to Martin (2006, p. 72), giving citizens an opportunity to scrutinize government is crucial since citizens bestow power to the administrators and politicians to govern on their behalf. It is then important that citizens should be able to determine whether the power they have given the administrators is utilized in the appropriate way to ensure that the entire society benefits. In this context, Hughes (2003) argues that accountability is significant since it marks the hallmarks of a democratic system of governance (p.241). Inadequate or even lack of accountability has the implication of making bureaucratic administration systems corrupt and omnipotent (Martin, 2006, p. 93). Lack of accountability erodes the tenets of the responsibility that a government has towards its people. Introducing the concept of responsibility to the discussions of accountability implies that people acting in the place of others have a legal obligation. Besides, they have a moral responsibility to act in a manner that does not violate the trust bestowed to them and report to clients on how they have performed in the tasks dedicated to them (Rhodes, 1997). Interrelating respon sibility and accountability this way attracts scholarly criticism.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, Hughes (2003, p. 241) and Considine (2002, p. 22) maintain that responsibility is different from accountability in that, in the hierarchy of execution of responsibility at governmental and organizational levels, it acts in the opposite direction. According to the author, this case happens where some subordinates are responsible for acts of other subordinates forming part of the work group. It is unfair to hold one person responsible for an act of another person. For instance, a manger cannot bear criminal responsibility for undue act of an employee in his or her line of command. In this extent, responsibility does not define precisely the extents of liability, which should be held by specific persons in government. Hence, responsibility is different from accountability in that, when individuals are considered accountable, they would have some kind of punishment subscribed to them in case of unsuccessful performance (Behn 2001, p.4). In case of administrators in the gov ernment, one form of punishment would involve removal from office either through dismissal by the appointing authority or by being voted out in case of an elective office in democratic systems. In this sense, accountability in public affairs is associated with aspects of justice, reliability, and loyalty (Bovens 2005, p.182). In public administration studies, accountability constitutes a large discipline. Scholars in the field have attempted to subdivide it into a number of facets. For example, Romzek (1998) divides it into four categories: legal accountability, hierarchical, professional, and political accountability (p.197). A legal and hierarchical accountability reflects the traditional perspective of public administration approaches. Professional and political accountability fosters higher degrees of autonomy. Hence, they are integral to new public management theory. According to Bovens (2005, p. 183), there are other types of accountability, which include administrative accoun tability, collective accountability, organizational accountability, individual accountability, and corporate accountability. Behn (2001) classifies all these types of accountability into three typologies: performance, fairness, and finances accountability (p.6). Accountability for fairness makes rulers refrain from misusing their power unjustly to disadvantage some people. In case of financial accountability, Bevir and Rhodes (2003) argue that government officials are entrusted with money belonging to taxpayers and that, if they fail to be accountable, they deserve a punishment (p.45). Performance accountability is realized by setting targets with well-defined parameters for managers and leaders to attain. The emphasis of accountability in public administration studies is paramount because accountability has significant functions within corporations and even in government. The principle functions of accountability include fostering effectiveness, fairness, efficiency, integrity, and democratic governance (Arnull Wincott, 2001, p. 18). Integrity is the substrate for prevention of corruption coupled with other undue conducts of public officials. Effectiveness and efficiency enhance performance. When all the functions of the accountability are integrated, a legitimate and reliable system of governance is acquired (Ferlie, Hartley Martin, 2003, p. 12). Analysis: Progression of public accountability from traditional approaches in public governance to network governance Traditional public administration and accountability In the traditional public administration approaches, accountability is manifested in two main forms: bureaucratic and political accountability (Dunleavy Hood, 1994, p. 9). In the bureaucratic accountability, citizens cannot directly hold civil servants accountable. Hence, their accountability is only possible through voting in appropriate political systems that are capable of putting in place appropriate legal systems that can subject civil serv ants to trial in case they violate accountability codes of conduct. In the context of traditional public administration, legal and hierarchical frameworks are deployed to enhance accountability. In this sense, Romzek notes, â€Å"hierarchical relationships rely on supervisory and organizational directives including rules and standards operation procedures to which employees are answerable for their performance† (1998, p.197). In this context, accountability is defined by various directives, which lay down the things that civil servants deserve to do and those that they should not do. Enhancing accountability from a legal basis implies that certain externally set anticipations and or standards are established and met. The performance of the civil servants must conform to the established criteria. Attempting to understand accountability from the contexts of the traditional approaches to public administration is quite easier. However, several problems emerge. Fisher (2004, p. 51 0) exemplifies one of these challenges when he argues that, accountability in the context of traditional approaches to public administration is not multidimensional since the model holds politician accountable while neglecting administrators since they are not associated with policy formulation. If anything goes wrong in the implementation of public policy, politicians should be held accountable since the administrators are only serving their bureaucratic role of implementation. Mulgan (2003, p. 4) supports this line of argument by lamenting that cultural differences come into play at the juncture in which political leaders encounter the top administration arm in the hierarchical structure of public governance associated with traditional approaches in public policy making processes. This challenge is akin to the focus of the traditional public administration on accountability based more on errors as opposed to achievements. Hence, the main attention is dedicated to the mistakes that would escape the scrutiny of the bureaucrats. Acheberg and Baston (1997) illustrate accountability approaches from the context of traditional public administration through an experiment for two groups of people to give scholarships to various students (p.345). The researcher was interested in the determination of the manner in which the groups allocated limited resources. One group knew that its way of allocation of scholarships would be exposed to testing while the other group did not have such information. The results on the experiment indicated that the group that knew its mechanism of allocation of resources would be tested for accountability allocated resources in an ineffective manner. From this experiment, it can be inferred that perception of the need to be held accountable leads to low levels of efficiency thus reinforcing the argument that traditional public administration seeks to pursue accountability from the perfectives of legal and financial contexts as opposed to pr ocedures and efficient utilization of resources. Accountability in the new public management approaches From the paradigms of new public management, citizens are viewed from the perspective of beings customers. Looking at accountability from the dimension of the degree to which people making the decision on behalf of the citizens satisfy the citizens, new public management stands out as a model that is more effective in comparison to traditional public administration (Dunleavy Hood, 1994, p. 12). Adoption of this model implies that the responsibility to the citizens shifts from politicians to the managers. The aftermath of this step is the alteration of the relations that exist between elected persons and citizens in matters of allocation and management of public resources (Mulgan, 2003, p. 18). Arguably, since new public management pursues the goal of improving relationships with various citizens (customers of the state), decision to maintain accountability is driven by the need t o establish stable connections with people. Comparatively, the traditional public administration approaches in enhancing accountability resulted in inefficiencies since it dwelled principally on seeking to control the manner in which bureaucrats spent resources as opposed to the outcomes realized from the utilization of resources. Dunleavy and Hood (1994, p. 13) reinforce this argument by asserting that governments guided by traditional approaches of public administration hardly realized optimal results. In the new public management, this challenge can be solved via making transfers of experiences to the private sector driven by the need to accord flexibility to mechanisms of public resource allocation in the effort to attain and satisfy the needs of citizens both optimally and maximally. In this end, accountability is measured as the degree to which the needs of the citizens have been achieved as opposed to the effectiveness or efficiency of the procedures used to satisfy the needs of the clients. This argument means that performance is an important parameter for measuring accountability under the new public management approaches. New public management combines contracting with privatization to enhance the efficiency of delivery of public goods (Martin, 2006, p. 100). The focus is to shift functions of the public sector to the private sector so that, in the due course of seeking more profits, customer satisfaction is increased. This means that the private sector would initiate steps to maintain its accountability since failure to do so would result in low profits. Apart from shifting the accountability in the allocation of public resources to the private sector, new public management results in effective and efficient resources utilization in the attempt to yield optimal returns. Bovens (2005, p. 182) commends such an approach by insisting that shifting the responsibility of allocation of public goods to the private sector provides the best mode of allocating and distributing public services. Accountability in network governance Over the last two decades, accountability with respect to network governance has undergone sophisticated changes grounded on the fundamentals of cooperation. Network governance contrasts the other two models in that it predominantly dwells on the creation of public value coupled with putting in place the means of ensuring that the relationship between the government and the citizens is maintained at the closest levels. The overall impact of network governance is the shifting of public accountability to horizontal accountability (Behn, 2001, p. 6). Bevir and Trentmann (2007) explain that this shift is fuelled by the need to enhance direct accountability to various customers (citizens), agencies, media, and even members of the civil society (p.78). This shift is perhaps vital by considering the rapid creation of various citizen charters, citizen panels and myriads of focus groups all aimed at enhancing public acco untability in the recent past in various nations. In particular, in the UK, a citizen panel comprised 6000 people to represent all citizens was formed and mandated to consult citizens on matters of the quality of the services delivered to them by the public sector (Curtin, 2004, p. 104: Bergman Damgaard, 2000, p. 15). Many other measures are also being adopted by different nations to compel the governments to be accountable to the citizens. They include publication of inspection reports, benchmarking reports, and assessment reports among other things over the internet. All attempts are aimed at encouraging horizontal accountability. The discussion above brings into the lime light a striking difference between the three topologies of public governance in enhancing public accountability. Under the traditional public administration, governments are neither principally interested nor focused on the outputs of the processes of allocation and distribution of public goods. Rather, more em phasis is paid on curtailing redundant mistakes. In case of new public management, concerns of accountability are market-driven (Kettle, 1998, p. 81). For network governance, rational matching of private with public sectors coupled with advocating for cooperation for the two sectors is the central concern believed to enhance the effectiveness and efficacy in achievements of results. Important to note is that network governance also compares with the other two approaches of accountability in that, under traditional public governance and new public management, civil servants are charged with the noble responsibility of ensuring that partnerships are created to foster cooperation between private and public sector. In such cases, administrators have narrow roles in enhancing interaction between various stakeholders who are vital in ensuring accountability. In the network governance era, transparency coupled with frankness and openness in the process of decision-making is influenced by i nteraction and cooperation of various stakeholders or contributors in the sphere of public accountability. Conclusion In public administration studies, accountability is considered as an element that helps to foster openness and trustworthiness coupled with transparency in both formulation and implementation of public policies. Public policies are formulated to enhance the allocation and distribution of public goods and services. Members of the Public hold the government accountable for the delivery of public goods and services. Driven by this concern, the paper focused on conducting an analysis on the changes and differences in approaches of public accountability from three dimensions: traditional public administration approaches to accountability, new public management, and network governance. It was argued in the paper that accountability is pivotal in societies. It is a determinant of the existing relationship between citizens and the government. Based on this argument, the pape r maintained that democratic governance could not prevail in an environment dominated by administration systems that are not accountable for their actions. The study demonstrated the significance of public accountability with respect to types coupled with functions of various forms of accountability. From traditional public administration through new public management to the network governance, several changes have taken place with respect to accountability. New public management is considered an optimal mechanism of allocation and distribution of public goods and services compared to the traditional public administration. In the due process, public accountability is incredibly improved. Under the paradigms of new public management, the relationship between bureaucrat and customers (citizens) is also improved. A shift in the measurement of accountability changes from being based on resources to the performance in terms of results. With the adoption of network governance, which conce rns itself with the creation of public value, cooperation of private and public sector is enhanced thus giving rise to even more enhanced accountability in allocation and distribution of the scarcest public resources. Reference List Acheberg, S., Baston, C. (1997). Accountability and Helping: When Needs Exceed Resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(2), 343-350. Arnull, A., D. Wincott, 2001, Accountability and Legitimacy in the European Union. New York Oxford: OUP. Behn, R. (2001). Rethinking Democratic Accountability. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Bergman, T., Damgaard, E. (2000). Delegation and accountability in the European Union. London: Frank Cass. Bevir, M., Rhodes, R. (2003). Searching for Civil Society: Changing Patterns of Governance in Britain. Public Administration, 81(1), 41-62. Bevir, M., Trentmann, F. (2007). Governance, Consumers and Citizens. London: Palgrave. Bovaird, T., Loffler. E. (2009). Public Management and Governance. London: Routledge. Bovens, M. (2005). Public Accountability. In F.Lynne C. Politt (Eds), The Oxford handbook of public management. (pp. 182-208). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Considine, M. (2002). Accountable Governance in the Age of Networks, Partnerships, and Joined-up Services. Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions, 15(1), 21-40. Curtin, D. (2004). Mind the Gap: The evolving EU Executive and the Constitution, Third Walter van Gerven Lecture. Leuven; Groningen: Europa Law Publishing. Dunleavy, P., Hood, C. (1994). From Old Public Administration to New public Management. Public Money and Management, 1(1), 9-16. Ferlie, E., Hartley, J., Martin, J. (2003). Changing Public Service Organizations: Current Perspectives and Future prospects. British Journal of management, 14(2), 1-14. Fisher, E. (2004). The European Union in the Age of Accountability. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 24(1), 495-515. Horner, L., Lekhi, R., Blaug, R. (2006 ). Deliberative Democracy and the Role of Public Managers. London: The Work Foundation. Hughes, O. (2003). Public Management and Administration. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kettle, D. (1998). Reinventing Government: A Fifth-Year Report Card. Washington: Brookings. Martin, J. (ed). (2006). Public Service Improvement, Policy, Progress and Prospects. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Mulgan, R. (2003). Holding Power to Account: Accountability in Modern Democracies. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Pollitt, C. (2003).The Essential Public Manager. London: Open University Press/McGraw-Hill. Rhodes, R. (1997). Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability. Buckingham: Open University Press. Romzek, B. (1998). Where The Buck Stops: Accountability in the Reformed Public Organizations. In P.W. Ingraham, R. Thompson, and R.P Sander. Transforming government: lessons from the reinvention laboratories. San Francesco: Jossey Bass. Schmitter, P. (2004). The Ambiguous Virtues of Accountability. Journal of Democracy,  15(4), 47–60. Scott, C. (2000). Accountability in the Regulatory State. Journal of Law and Society, 27(1), 38–60. This essay on Influence of Government Paradigms on Public Accountability: Public Administration and Network Governance was written and submitted by user Camren D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Music Appreciation Test 1 Essay Example Music Appreciation Test 1 Paper Music Appreciation Test 1 Paper Essay Topic: Poetry In the chorus Hallelujah! From Messiah, monophony is used to convey the idea that There is one God The number11 in Didos Lament refers to Betrayal A shift from one level of volume to another in Baroque music is called Terrace Dynamics the earliest opera took their plots from mythology or history Which of the following musical devices is not used in the First movement of Bachs Cantata no. 140 wachet auf (sleepers awake) recitative the approximate dates of the Baroque period were 1600-1750 which of the following best describes socio-political system of the Baroque Era? Absolute Monarchy the dominant affection used in the chorus Hallelujah! From Messiah is best termed Majesty overlapping entries of the subject in a fugue are known as a Stretto The group of early Baroque writer, artists, and musicians whose aim was to resurrect the musical drama of ancient Greece known as The Florentine Camerata In the Chorus Hallelujah! from the Messiah, the kingdom of this world contrasted with the kingdom of our lord is significant because -uses terraced dynamics to show which kingdom is more important -uses word painting to represent these kingdoms -uses a special musical style to represent the idea that one of the kingdoms now rules the other The doctrine of the Affections states that An entire piece or large section of a piece should only reflect on affection short, recurring instrumental passage, found in the baroque concerto is called a Ritornello A performer of extraordinary technical ability is referred to as a virtuoso In the Baroque Era, a composer would be most likely to use the style of to set emotionally significant portions of a vocal solo Aria the main theme of a fugue is known as the Subject In Bachs Cantata no. 140, Wachet auf (Sleepers, Awake), the chorale tune is heard set against a countermelody in which movement? movement 4 George Frideric Handel was considered a master of the(genre) Opera Which of the following composers was born in Germany, traveled to Italy to study opera, but spent much of his/ her career in England Handel the form of the aria portion of Didos Lament from Purcells Dido and Aeneas is best described as Ostinato Aria A section of a fugue in which the main theme is not heard is called an episode the opening movement of Spring (Primavera) from The Four Seasons is in form Ritornello the larger group of instruments in a Baroque concerto grosso is known as a. Pipieno or Tutti the baroque composer who was also a renowned singer was Barbara Strozzi the volume changes based on the performing forces used (soft, medium, loud) without subtle gradations between levels in baroque music are known as terraced dynamic which genre is best described as a short multi movement work for vocalists, chorus and instrumentalists based on a text of either sacred or secular nature Cantata specific, short musical ideas may be used to stimulate specific emotions is known as The Doctrine of Figures A is a baroque congregational hymn of the German Lutheran Church. chorale In the chorus Hallelujah! from Messiah, canon is used to represent eternity the Florentine Cameratas ideas on music led directly toward the development of Opera the form of Handels Rejoice Greatly! is best described as da capo during the Baroque period the stated that there should be no rapid, extreme changes of emotion in a piece of music Doctrine of Affections a type of performance group used in most Baroque music is the Basso Continuo which two instruments would have been most likely to play the basso continuo in the baroque area? Cello and harpsichord the text of an opera is known as the Libbretto the number of players needed to perform a baroque basso continuo is two the Water Music by Handel is best described as a (genre) suite the opening movement of Bachs cantata no. 140, Wachet auf (sleepers, awake) is best described as(form/genre) Chorale fantasia the Baroque musician who was unusual for being admitted to an academy of intellectuals was Barbara Strozzi what refers to practice of breaking chords into separate notes to prolong the sound Style Brise the solo group of instruments in a concerto grosso is called concertino another term for ground bass is basso ostinato on which epic poem did nahum tate base the libretto for Purcells opera Dido and Aeneas? Virgils Aeneid How many players are necessary to correctly perform a trio sonata four 2 play bass continuo -1 play bass -1 play melody the chorale is a type of hymn tune created by Martin Luther Musical pictorialization of words from a text is known as word painting the larger group of instruments in a Baroque concerto grosso plays the Ritornello the greatest native English composer of the baroque period was Henry Purcell chorale tunes were adapted from Gregorian chant secular art music the is a polyphonic form in which one or more themes are developed in imitative counterpoint Fugue Bachs last demonstration of contrapuntal mastery was the. art of fugue the baroque period witnessed a new style of music, which featured a single vocal melody with accompaniment known as Monody the philosophical basis for the Doctrine of Affection was the idea of the power of music to influence the circulatory system the tendency to value the subjective, emotional, and ecstatic is know as Dionysian A is a virtuosic solo passage in the manner of an improvisation. cadenza the tendency to value reason, the objective, an order is best called Apollonian who is best viewed as the first master of opera? monteverdi Dido sings her famous lament in purcells opera Dido and Aeneas just before. she dies the term baroque probably derives from the meaning misshapen pearl the most popular keyboard instruments of the baroque era were the Organ and Harpsichord the first movement of a baroque concerto is most often based on procedure or form ritornello a multi movement work based on the opposition of one player against a larger group is a. solo concerto male singer who was neutered during boyhood to preserve his high voice was a castrato which of the following is a set of forty-eight preludes and fugues by Bach The Well Tempered Clavier J.S. Bach was most famous in his day as a performer on the Organ Melodic style characterized by many notes sung to a single text syllable is called Melismatic the term accompagnato (as opposed to secco) describes recitative in which the whole orchestra accompanies An instrumental passage that recurs again and again, as a refrain in an aria, is called a. ritornello which of the following pieces is an example of program music Spring from the Four Seasons by Vivaldi which of the following is most likely to be a syllabic in style? recitative the opening section of a fugue in which the main theme is heard is called an exposition the harpsichord is different from the piano because strings are plucked rather than hammered a hornpipe is an english dance a short phrase repeated over and over in the bass is also called a basso ostinato or ground bass which was not a favored keyboard instrument of the Baroque era? the piano vigorous, driving rhythm that does not let up is known as the. moto perpetuo an operatic song in the form ABA, which allows for the soloist to embellish the last section is called a. da capo aria what is a term indicating a purge of the emotions? catharsis opera is best understood as a dionysian entertainment a - was a type of english aristocratic entertainment combining music, poetry, and dance masque vivaldi wrote his concertos for the performers at the ospedale della pieta who were adolescent girls a repeating melody, usually in the bass, throughout a piece of music is known as a basso ostinato how many voices or individual lines are there in J.S. Bachs contrapunctus I from the art of fugue? four mourets rondeau is best considered a (genre) movement from a suite of dances the contrapuntal device that presents the subject spelled from end to beginning (backward) is known as retrograde the contrapuntal device that presents the subject spelled from upside down is known as. inversion what are the musical figures or example of word painting used by Handel in Rejoice Greatly high note on shout melismas long notes on peace large intervals on greatly In the chorus Hallelujah! from Messiah, The kingdom of this world contrasted with the Kingdom of our Lord is significant because -uses terraced dynamics to show which kingdom is more important -uses word painting to represent these kingdoms -uses a special musical style to represent the idea that one of the kingdoms now rules the other what are ostinato forms of the baroque era -basso ostinato -passacaglia -ground bass -chaconne what positions did Bach hold during his lifetime -cantor of St. Thomass Church in Leipzig -court organist and chamber musician to duke of weimar -court musician to the prince of Anhalt-Cothem What are devices used in Didos Lament -chromatic basso ostinato to symbolize grief or mourning -melodic descent on laid in earth to portray burial -repeated notes on remember me! to portray to the tolling of a death bell what are the characteristics of baroque music: -energetic, continuous rhythm -continuously expanding melody, built on sequence, or spinning out -expressive use of dissonance how did baroque musicians earn a living -as servants to royalty or nobility -as employees of a city -as employees of the church

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Animals Under Threat of Extinction

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What I would like to know after having written the assignment is whether this affects us or not and if it is a global problem. I would like to learn about extinction in general, and how species actually are extinct. I also want to find out if we can stop extinction, or if extinction is a natural part of species exist ence. Is this a global problem? Many of the endangered species are essential for other species survival, and in the long run, they might even play a big part of the existence of human beings. Every single species on earth is a part of a food chain. The extinction of a species may mean the end of another group of organisms. The eventual extinction of rainforests is a good example of this. The rainforests are a huge part of life on earth as we know it. It is assumed that between 50 and 70 percent of all species on earth are somehow connected to the rainforests, and research shows the rainforests hides millions of species yet to be discovered. Once, the glorious forests covered about 14 percent of the earths surface. Today, we are down to 6 percent, and it is decreasing by more than 6000 square metres every single day. This is not only a huge crisis for the wild life in the rainforests (research shows that nearly 150 species disappear every day because of the deforestation), but through the photosynthesis process, the rainforests are responsible for 28 percent of the earths oxygen turnover. This, combined with the heavy increase in the worlds population, might turn out to be a major problem. Additionally, by tearing down the rainforests, we might miss the cure for several deceases, considering that more than 25 percent of all natural medicines ever discovered, have their roots in the rainforests. We can assume that the last few remaining rainforests will be wiped of the face of the earth within 40 years. Extinction in general. The term extinction is used when a species reaches its end of existence. An estimated 99,9 percent of every species of animals and plants ever to have existed on our planet, are now extinct, and according to an environmental article in The Independant, scientists claim that about 50 percent of all existing species today will be extinct by the 22nd century. Most extinction happens before a race is even discovered. The definition extinction is used about a species when there are no more surviving members of the species that can reproduce, to create another generation of said species. Today, the group of extinct animals increases rapidly every day. According to a recent survey by the American Museum of Natural History, 70 percent thinks that this mass extinction is an even greater threat to our existence than climate changes. Most scientists also believe that the mass extinction and its consequences are greatly underestimated, and needs to be dealt with. Endangered species: According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, about 40 percent of every living organism on our planet is threatened with extinction. This, of course, only includes the little percentage of species discovered. There are different grades of endangerment, according to the IUCN Red List of endangered species, the first being Least Concern. This means the species faces no current threat of extinction. Some examples are the common mouse and the wood pigeon. Next category is Near threatened, and includes animals such as the tiger shark and the solitary eagle. These species may be threatened by extinction soon. The third category is called Conservation dependent. Some species under this category are the spotted hyena and the killer whale, and they are not critically endangered, but conservation programs are required . Vulnerable is the fourth grade, and these species, including the komodo dragon and the polar bear, are currently facing a risk of becoming extinct. The blue whale and the giant panda are species categorised as Endangered, and are in near future facing a great risk of becoming extinct. The species under the category Critically Endangered are facing an extreme risk of becoming extinct in near future. A species in this group is the mountain gorilla. Extinct in the wild is the category with species where only members of the species in captivation exist. The last category is Extinct, and the species under this category have reached theyre end of existence. There are no living individuals of the species. The Extinct category includes the dodo, the mammoth and more recently, the Baiji river dolphin (the species was declared extinct in 2006) and the West-African black rhinoceros (declared extinct in 2006). Why and how does a species get extinct? There are several ways for a species to get extinct. One way for a species to get extinct is if a species in its food chain faces extinction. For example, in a specific forest, the fox, the rabbit and the grass may be a part of a food chain, where the main part of the foxs diet consists of rabbits, which main diet consists of grass. If one year, the amount of grass is lower than usual, the rabbits may be failing in numbers as well, due to lack of food, and this could lead to that the amount foxes will decrease as well, because they will have a smaller amount of rabbits to feed on. In this scenario, the fox would probably go ahead and find another main source of food, but lets say the food chain is to only consist of these three species. The next year, because the amount of rabbits being eaten by foxes is lower, because the foxes didnt have as much food as usual, and the number of foxes is lower than usual, there would be an increase in the stock of rabbits. The next year again, the n umber of foxes would increase, because there is more rabbits to feed on. And like this, the food chain runs in a loop. This shows that all species depend on each other, and the amount of one species depends on the amount of another species. Climate changes are another reason for animal extinction, and the main reason for the growing concern of the polar bears existence. According to this article from a Norwegian online newspaper, the polar bears are forced to swim much longer distances than before, because of the melting of the Arctic ice. This is a huge problem for the polar bear cubs, which simply are born with a layer of fat to thin to survive for long in the ice-cold water. The melting of the ice also means it is increasingly more difficult for the polar bears to find food. Another reason for species extinction is human interaction. The dodo and the West-African black rhinoceros are great examples of this. The dodo was first seen in the early 1600s when Dutch sailors discovered the island Mauritius. The dodo had stubby wings, and was heavy and slow, an easy target for hungry Dutchmen. In less than 80 years, the dodo was extinct. The sailors who ate them and the fact that their nests were destroyed by rodents the sailors had brought with them. The West-African black rhinoceros horn was believed to be a form for aphrodisiac in parts of Yemen and China, so the species was a popular target for hunters. The species was declared extinct, when conservationists where unable to find any remaining individuals, in 2006. Conclusion. I believe there is no way for us people to stop extinction caused by natural changes, as it is a natural part of a species existence. However, endangered species caused by human actions, such as species being hunted for a part of the animal, like elephants tusks, sharks fins and rhinoceros horns is possible to stop by refuse to support these actions. The same is for the destruction of the rainforests, which I believe we need to do something about. Species extinction caused by climate changes, on the other hand, I dont think we are going to be able to stop. We cant undo whatever damage we have already caused our planet. If the climate changes turns out to be a part of human actions though, we may be able to stop future extinctions caused by changes in the climate.

The Rebellion of Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House Essay -- Dolls House e

The Rebellion of Nora in A Doll's House      Ã‚  Ã‚   A Doll's House, by Henrik Ibsen, was written during a time when the role of woman was that of comforter, helper, and supporter of man. The play generated great controversy due to the fact that it featured a female protagonist seeking individuality.  Ã‚   A Doll's House was one of the first plays to introduce woman as having her own purposes and goals. The heroine, Nora Helmer, progresses during the course of the play eventually to realize that she must discontinue the role of a doll and seek out her individuality. David Thomas describes the initial image of Nora as "that of a doll wife who revels in the thought of luxuries that can now be afforded, who is become with flirtation, and engages in childlike acts of disobedience" (Thomas 259). This inferior role from which Nora progressed is extremely important.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ibsen's A Doll's House depicts the role of women as subordinate in order to emphasize the need to reform their role in society. Definite characteristics of the women's subordinate role in a relationship are emphasized through Nora's contradicting actions. Her infatuation with luxuries such as expensive Christmas gifts contradicts her resourcefulness in scrounging and buying cheap clothing; her defiance of Torvald by eating forbidden Macaroons contradicts the submission of her opinions, including the decision of which dance outfit to wear, to her husband; and Nora's flirtatious nature contradicts her devotion to her husband. These occurrences emphasize the facets of a relationship in which women play a dependent role: finance, power, and love.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ibsen attracts our attention to these examples to highlight the overall subordinate role that a woman ... ...y is representative of the awakening of society to the changing view of the role of woman. A Doll's House magnificently illustrates the need for and a prediction of this change. Works Cited and Consulted: Clurman, Harold. 1977. Ibsen. New York: Macmillan. Heiberg, Hans. 1967. Ibsen. A Portrait of the Artist. Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami. Ibsen, Henrik. "A Doll’s House." Perrine's Literature.   Forth Worth:   Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1998.   pp. 967-1023 Northam, John. 1965. "Ibsen's Search for the Hero." Ibsen. A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Shaw, Bernard. "A Doll's House Again."   Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism.   Detroit: Gale Research Inc., 1979. Sturman, Marianne Isben's Plays I, A Doll’s House Cliffs Notes, 1965. Thomas, David. Henrik Ibsen. New York: Grove, 1984

Pros and Cons of Free Trade

IntroductionFree trade is an agreement between two or more countries in exchange for goods and/or services without the enforcement of tariffs or duties and at a benefit for each country. Advocates in favor of free trade believe that it gives Americans a better standard of living because of the goods and services received at such low prices. Free trade strengthens the U.S economy, creates jobs, spreads the value of freedom, reinforces the rule of law, and helps under developed countries.(White n.d).Most foreign countries can manufacture goods at lower cost so we pay less for them. Economists of free trade believe that when we sell more of our products overseas, American businesses can employ more people. Opponents who oppose U.S. free trade believe that it has caused many job losses here in the U.S and is not good for the economy. Many jobs overseas can be performed for a fraction of the cost of what American workers earn; so many U.S jobs are outsourced. Opponents also stress the unf ortunate exploitation of workers in underdeveloped countries and the defiling of their resources.Lastly the free trade agreement is a little one- sided, the U.S buys more goods from overseas than what other countries buy from us.THE PROS AND CONS OF FREE TRADE 3The advantage of free trade is the goods and services that can be bought at a reasonable cost. Also, the use of less expensive materials and labor acquired through free trade leads to a lower cost of manufactured goods. Dollar Tree is an example of how free trade has allowed this business to grow. This dollar store sells all of its goods for one flat rate of $1 to the American consumer. Normally, a pack of batteries would be $4.00 but at Dollar Tree it is $1. A large loaf of bread , frozen food, cleaning agents, head phones, pet supplies, baby clothes, toys, and more are just $1, all items are imported from either Mexico, China, Japan, Brazil or the Philippines.â€Å"Deep discounts translates into savings in food and goods. Denise Froming of The Benefits of Free Trade: A Guide For Policymakers states, â€Å"Because of these low prices the U.S. economy has grown by more than 23 percent, adding more than $2.1 trillion to the nation's gross domestic product (GDP) and raising the wealth of the average American consumer by more than $5,500†(Froming 2000). Although, these are tremendous savings brought about by these imports, it would be better to see U.S jobs and more American products made here at reasonable cost.The disadvantage of outsourcing jobs is how it impacts on American workers, for example in Ohio a once lucrative steel manufacturing company, named Republic Steel, became America's third largest steel company. Wikipedia states, â€Å"Republic Steel remained prosperous until the 1970s, but because of cheaper foreign imports, rising labor costs, and other factors they began to go under. In 1984 in an exchange of hands Republic merged into LTV steel but unfortunately, in December 2001, LTV fi led for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.† (Wikipedia 2014).THE PROS AND CONS OF FREE TRADE 4The steel plant was leveled and now in its place stands a Wal-Mart super store, the size of three football fields. The benefits of discount pricing do not outweigh the drawbacks of not having jobs. Hundreds of jobs were lost when Republic Steel went under and we now get our steel from Mexico†¦ Coincidentally, while writing this paper Ohio governor Kasich is bringing back Republic Steel with the help of a Mexican steel giant ICH who has brought Republic Steel out of bankruptcy.Ohio is producing shale oil and will need a steel plant to make pipes for gas lines within the next year. The average income with overtime and night shifts will be $50,000, and if this deal goes through it will inject more money into Ohio’s economy.(Schoenberger, 2011). In the U.S you have to pay at least minimum wage so, some companies who want to reap a high profit go to other countries and exploit those worker s. For example a pair of Michael Jordan tennis shoes made in China and Vietnam for around $7 resells for $70-180 here in the U.S.(Wiki n.d)The workers that produce these shoes in sweat shops make less than $2.46 per day with no benefits. (Jonathan n.d). The entrepreneurs who exploit the resources and labor of third world countries discredit what free trade is all about. What is needed is a balance of goods and services along with keeping a fair percentage of jobs for Americans. There should also be some way to police entrepreneurs from exploiting the resources of other countries.

How successful is concealment in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde? Essay

â€Å"†¦the more it looks like Queer Street, the less I ask.† How successful is concealment in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde? Jekyll and Hyde is a novel which addresses the drug usage that went on behind closed doors in 1890’s Britain. Also much of the book id based on some of Stevenson’s own experience’s of drug use because from very early childhood Stevenson was on a strict regime of drugs to deal with various aliments. Throughout the novel concealment is used to keep the reader interested in the novel, both physical and metaphorical concealment is used. For example at the very start of the test Jekyll’s will is concealed from us so we are not exactly sure what the issues with Edward Hyde are. This keeps the interested and encourages them to read on to learn more of the texts sudden interest with Edward Hyde. Another example of physical concealment is Dr Lanyon’s letter to Mr Utterson the lawyer when Uttterson receives the letter the audience, for a moment are lead to believe that this is the end and they will finally find out what is going on. Then the first envelope is open an again no joy but the audience continue to read on with the fresh hope that soon this envelope will be opened & all will be revealed. Examples of metaphorical concealment would be when Utterson urges Jekyll to come clean and explain why Hyde is in his will but he refuses to give an explanation there fore refusing the audience explanation of why he is so fond of Hyde. Also throughout the text Steven son conceals things from the reader by telling things from a different points of view, nothing is ever explained in one go from one perspective. This creates ambiguity as the things that Stevenson does reveal could mean many different things. This causes suspense in the readers. There are many different reasons for things to be concealed in the text by both Stevenson and the characters; the characters conceal things from themselves and each other because they are scared of what would happen if they didn’t. In the 1890’s people were extremely God fearing people and anything scientific could be considered evil as this would be meddling with Gods work and not only would Jekyll and other characters be ashamed of themselves for having anything to do with and would not want others to find out they had any connections to this. Also there everyday lives were very routine based, so why disrupt this comfy, cosy routine when they could just cover it up? Why cause all this trouble over something they could just cover look and ignore. Stevenson chooses to conceal things from the reader to help the reader relate to the character and understand just how in the dark they really were about what was going on at the time. Also it helps create tension, ambiguity and suspense in the text. With in the novel Stevenson conceals hidden themes showing what was happening at the time in Victorian Britain; such as the outrage towards Darwin’s theory of evolution, at the time people strongly believed in God and was against science. Darwin was purposing that we all came from animals; these ideas had major repercussions as it went against everything the church had worked so hard to preach. Stevenson put these things in to get a reaction as he knew in a strongly religious Victorian Britain the fact that Hyde shows some animal like instincts and cannot control this would not go down to well. Another concealed theme would be degeneration, as at that time society were concerned that human nature was becoming worse and evil was becoming more dominant in peoples characteristics, Stevenson uses this when he shows how Hyde is slowly but surely becoming Jekyll’s stronger persona. Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein share some of the same themes such as concealment, as when the Doctor creates his monster and rejects him , he becomes very secluded and ill as does DR Jekyll in Jekyll and Hyde. Also the books contain similar use of weather and animal imagery. This may be because they come from the same area. Stevenson shows great decadence in this novel as at the time Victorians were strongly opposing science and all of it attributes, Stevenson seemed to be trying to throw off the restraints of society at the time by referring to Hyde’s animal like ways well he was trampling the girl, thus high lighting Darwin’s theory that was frowned upon at the time. Also reflected in Stevenson’s Jekyll & Hyde was the fin-de-siecle, this is because the level of evil becomes slowly greater towards the end of the book until finally everything came to an end this connotes the concerns that everything was slowly getting worse as time went on. In the next things are concealed from the reader by Stevenson, concealed from the characters by other characters by other characters and also characters will conceal things from themselves to make themselves feel better. The effect of the reader not knowing what is going on is that they constantly feel the need to keep reading to gain more knowledge about the illusive Mr Hyde. The effect of the reader finding out things at the same time as the characters helps the reader emphasize with the characters so they can see things more easily from there point of view so this helps the reader understand more clearly what is going on in the book. The consequences of concealment are different for different characters. Utterson was protected from Hyde purely because of his lack of knowledge about him and how he is created. Lanyon, however is killed when all is revealed to him so perhaps it would have been far safer for certain characters to have things concealed from them rather than not. Concealment is what overall resulted in the death of Henry Jekyll, as he thought firstly that he could conceal his evil mannerisms in Edward Hyde and go about his evil under the name of Edward Jekyll but he fails and in the end (all though the other characters do not get to learn this we do) we see that all Hyde is to Jekyll is a disguise, not in fact an evil alter ego, but his own evil way encased in a different person. Things begin to slowly be revealed through the novel, as documents are opened and characters crack under pressure and share there secrets with someone else. Some things remain concealed almost until the very end such as Jekyll & Hyde being one person. Jekyll was forced to reveal his drug use to unsuspecting Lanyon when he turned into Hyde in the night and could not reach his cabinet to get the drugs out. This was disastrous as the shock of seeing all this evil killed him in the end. At this point it was already too late to help save Jekyll from his ever looming fate. This was successful in the terms of engaging the reader with the story as it leaves you wondering who Jekyll might reveal his deep dark secret to next. People were also made to understand how small & desperate the drug addict can feel sometime, but Lanyon’s shock and unwillingness to help once he new the situation connotes how people would turn a drug user away today because they fear for there own safety; because of all this I believe Stevenson was very successful in highlighting these issues. At the end of the novel the exact true circumstances of Jekyll’s death are concealed. This leaves the reader to draw there own conclusions from the information they are given by Stevenson. This helps add mystery to the plot and readers can draw there own conclusion, and think up an ending most fitting for them. The modern reader can relate to the text in so many ways, such as the pressure and longing to be bad, teens can relate this to there everyday life because they fell they need to miss behave to gain the respect of there friends. In the league of extraordinary gentlemen men the fact that Hyde is much larger than Jekyll helps show that evil has a bigger presence, and the pull of evil is much more appealing in today’s society. Also some teens can relate to the drug usage in the book as when Jekyll becomes Hyde he does everything he would love to as Jekyll, he can truly be himself. Teens can identify with this because they take drugs to relax, to have fun; some feel they can only do this with drugs in there system. In society today concealment still plays a very big part, parents conceal evil such as drugs, drinking etc from there children by trying to keep them away from this. But instead children will adapt a Jekyll and Hyde like persona’s one for there parents were the none of these bad things exist and one for there friends were they can be as bad as they like with no repercussions. Stevenson was successful in bringing these issues to light as he helped highlight just how much of the true human nature is repressed and hidden away.

The Miracle Worker essays

The Miracle Worker essays This story is about a deaf, blind, and mute girl. Her name is Helen Keller. Helen who has been unable to speak, hear or see since childhood, is increasingly difficult to educate until her parents find Annie Sullivan. Although she is new to teaching, it is through Annie's strong will and unshakable faith that Helen discovers how to survive... and thrive in the world through the eyes and ears others. As the story opens we see that Helen is quite a handful to take care of. Her parents are at their ropes end bout what to do with her. After discussing it for awhile, they decide that it would be best if they called in a teacher to live with them, and help Helen. The teacher that comes into their home is Annie Sullivan. She hasn't ever taught before, but agrees to try. When she meets Helen she sees that helen is quite smart, just spoiled. Helen is used to getting everything she wants, when she wants it and its obvious that Annie won't stand for it. Annie's first attempts to teach Helen dosen't go as she had planned. Annie uses sign language to speak to Helen She lets Helen feel each letter as she spells, Helen learns how to sign back, but she can't put two and two together. In other words, if Annie if Annie lets Helen taste an apple, Helen might spell out cake. Annie's biggest problem is the fact that she dosen't have complete control of Helen. The Kellers keep interferring with Annie's work. So, annie asks the Kellers is she can use the garden house, and live with Helen until she understands what Annie is trying to teach her. Finally, Annie gets the Kellers to allow her to take Helen and live in the garden house. Only for two weeks though. So Annie and Helen move into the garden house. Annie teaches Helen alot in two weeks.Although Annie feels that she needs more time, because Helen still dosen't understand that things have a name. Annie asks the kellers for more time, but they refuse. So Helen goes back ...

Deciding future US foreign policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Deciding future US foreign policy - Essay Example The United States would seem to occupy an enviable position in the world. Even as others must constantly account for the U.S., it would appear that the U.S. need not account for others. Compared with all other states, the United States is in a class by itself.No other country can match the health and productivity of its economy, the extent of its scientific and technological resources, its ability to sustain massive levels of defense spending, or the power, sophistication, and global reach of its armed forces. With these capabilities, the United States has enjoyed a unipolar if not a hegemonic state in world affairs. However, in light of the recent September 11 terrorist attacks, the Iraq war and Afghan conflict and the non-involvement of former strong allies, many critics have pointed out that the position enjoyed by the United States in world affairs is in danger and that a re-evaluation of foreign policy is called for. What should be the foreign policy adapted by the United States in the future.To a large extent, George W. Bush's administration has generally embraced primacy and the unilateralist foreign policy beliefs and preferences that underlie it. Early on, there were indications that the administration might exercise restraint in its foreign policy (e.g., Rice 2000; Zoellick 2000). Whatever the early indications, after 9/11, the administration quickly shifted gears to more aggressive and unilateral efforts, displaying a penchant for "bombing alone." This foreign policy has proven itself largely ineffective. While the United States has been successful in dismantling unfriendly nations who they accuse of having weapons of mass destruction, it has not prevented the increasing hatred for America and its nationals. The world still remains much the same with two differences- suicide bombings targeting US nationals or allies have intensified and US finds itself fewer allies. In the spirit of Neo-conservatism, the US embarked on a global war on terror to prese rve human rights for all the righteous people in the world only to face greater threats. If Henry Kissinger had his way, the US should have a 'realist' foreign policy wherein decisions are made based on material or military power rather than on ideals. It also involves an appraisal of the cultures and tendencies of other nations and not acting based on domestic feelings. Before the state acts, it must first question whether it is both practical and ideal. Kissinger's Realism aimed at defending American national interests by balancing adversaries and not promoting American hegemony or transforming the global order. The idea of the United States acting only if it benefits them with minimal harm is increasingly becoming popular but such a policy would only project further the image of the United States as an opportunistic nation filled with self-gratifying individuals both of which are two propaganda materials for terrorist organizations. America has been formerly isolationist up until the middle of the 20th century due to its reluctance to meddle directly in European affairs. It was only after the two world wars where the United States saw it fit to assume the role of a watchdog. Should America isolate itself by withdrawing its troops stationed in other countries and become a passive observer of events in other countries According to Sachs (2001), the hatred for Americans stems from its seeming disregard for national sovereignty by intervening in local affairs. Unable to remain separate or immune and feeling overwhelmed by the unwelcome forces, people lash out against their perceived chief source of ill feelings - the United States. Isolationist America finds further support from Huntington (1993) who argues that actively intervening in world affairs forces cultures and civilizations into greater contact with each other, increasing the likelihood of conflict. The Defense Department's Joint Visio

Discuss the offences and punishments arising out of Military Service Essay

Discuss the offences and punishments arising out of Military Service in Malta - Essay Example force’s and friendly aircrafts or when commanded to carry out operations in the air but fails to do so effectively shall be liable to life sentences or any other punishment provided by the Forces Act. However, if such intentional acts can not be proved, the individual may be convicted and imprisoned or given lesser penalties (Laws of Malta, 2003). Communication with the enemy and any such dangerous disclosures through intentional and unauthorized issuance of intelligence to enemies faces up to a life sentence or any other punishment in the act. ... In addition, a soldier becoming a prisoner of war through disobedience or willful neglect of duty or failing to take opportunity to rejoin forces or preventing/ discouraging other prisoners of war from taking steps to return to forces shall be open to imprisonment or any less punishment in this act (Malta, 1988). Offences regarding sentries or guards on duty (that is, one posted to patrol or is a member of a guard/ other party on patrol for purposes of preventing/ controlling access to or egress from any premises or of regulatory traffic), included drunkenness, sleeping at post or leaving assigned post. If anyone under military law uses force against such a guard on duty to achieve an objective shall be guilty against the said article. However, if offence is committed when one is not on active duty, he/ she must not be imprisoned fro more than two years. Looting offences included stealing from or the intent to steal from person wounded or killed in military operations or any property left exposed and unprotected after operations or anything left behind by the enemy with punishments ranging from imprisonment or any less punishment in the act. Mutiny by persons subject to military law by inciting another person or is themselves involved in threats of use of violence in order to avoid military duty is punishable on conviction for up to a life sentence or any other less punishment in the act. It involves the participation of at least two persons subject to military law to overthrow or resist authority, hamper conduction of military duty or to disobey authority in any way that causes deterioration of discipline in the forces. Failure to suppress, report without hesitation or prevent perceived